Effects of Passive or Active Recovery Regimes Applied During Long-Term Interval Training on Physical Fitness in Healthy Trained and Untrained Individuals: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Intermittent exercise programs characterized through intensive exercise bouts alternated with passive or active recovery (i.e., interval training), have been proven to enhance measures of cardiorespiratory fitness. However, it is unresolved which recovery type (active or passive) applied during interval training results in larger performance improvements. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review aimed to summarize recent evidence on the effects of passive or active recovery following long-term interval exercise training on measures of physical fitness and physiological adaptations in healthy trained and untrained individuals. The study protocol was registered in the Open Science Framework (OSF) platform ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/9BUEY ). METHODS: We searched nine databases including the grey literature (Academic Search Elite, CINAHL, ERIC, Open Access Theses and Dissertations, Open Dissertations, PsycINFO, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) from inception until February 2023. Key terms as high-intensity interval training, recovery mode, passive or active recover were used. A systematic review rather than a meta-analysis was performed, as a large number of outcome parameters would have produced substantial heterogeneity. RESULTS: After screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, 24 studies were eligible for inclusion in our final analysis. Thirteen studies examined the effects of interval training interspersed with passive recovery regimes on physical fitness and physiological responses in trained (6 studies) and untrained (7 studies) individuals. Eleven out of 13 studies reported significant improvements in physical fitness (e.g., maximal aerobic velocity (MAV), Yo-Yo running test, jump performance) and physiological parameters (e.g., maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max], lactate threshold, blood pressure) in trained (effect sizes from single studies: 0.13 < Cohen's d < 3.27, small to very large) and untrained individuals (effect sizes: 0.17 < d < 4.19, small to very large) despite the type of interval training or exercise dosage (frequency, intensity, time, type). Two studies were identified that examined the effects of passive recovery applied during interval training in young female basketball (15.1 ± 1.1 years) and male soccer players (14.2 ± 0.5 years). Both studies showed positive effects of passive recovery on VO2max, countermovement jump performance, and the Yo-Yo running test. Eleven studies examined the effects of interval training interspersed with active recovery methods on physical fitness and physiological parameters in trained (6 studies) and untrained individuals (5 studies). Despite the type of interval training or exercise dosage, nine out of eleven studies reported significant increases in measures of physical fitness (e.g., MAV) and physiological parameters (e.g., VO2max, blood pressures) in trained (effect sizes from single studies: 0.13 < d < 1.29, small to very large) and untrained individuals (effect sizes: 0.19 < d < 3.29, small to very large). There was no study available that examined the effects of active recovery on physical fitness and physiological responses in youth. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this systematic review show that interval training interspersed with active or passive recovery regimes have the potential to improve measures of physical fitness and physiology outcomes in trained and untrained adults and trained youth. That is, the applied recovery type seems not to affect the outcomes. Nonetheless, more research is needed on the effects of recovery type on measures of physical fitness and physiological adaptations in youth.

Lower limbs micro-loading acutely attenuates repeated change-of-direction performance in male youth during small-sided soccer games.

BACKGROUND: Soccer players often wear light-weighted wearable resistance (WR) attached to different body parts during the warm-up period with the aim to improve measures of physical fitness. However, the effect of WR on physical performance is unknown. This study evaluated the effects of WR with different micro-loadings on repeated change-of-direction (RCoD) performance while executing small-sided soccer games (SSG). METHODS: Twenty male soccer players aged 16.0 ± 1.5 years (body mass 74.0 ± 7.4 kg, body-height 175.0 ± 10.0 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. Following a within-subject study design, players performed four specific warm-up protocols in randomized order with a rest of 72 h between protocols: (1) WR micro-loadings with 0.1% of body mass (WR0.1); (2) WR micro-loadings with 0.2% of body mass (WR0.2); (3) WR micro-loadings with 0.3% of body mass (WR0.3); (4) no WR (control = CONT). After the warm-up protocols, players performed 2 sets of 20-min SSG. The RCoD was collected at the 8th min of SSG (SSG 1-8 min), the 15th min of SSG1 (SSG1-15 min), and at the 15th min of SSG2 (SSG2-15 min). Outcomes included mean and total RCoD indices (i.e., mean time and total time for each condition). RESULTS: Based on the outcomes of a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), WR0.1 and WR0.2 were more effective than control in dampening the decrease of RCoD's total time during SSG1-8 min, and SSG2-15 min (small ES: 0.24-0.35; p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were observed between WR0.3 and control. In addition, WR0.1 and WR0.2 significantly affected the decreases in RCoD's mean best time during SSG1 and SSG2 which was observed in the unloaded condition (CONT) and consequently displayed a lower rate of RCoD performance decrease. CONCLUSION: This study reports that wearing lower extremity WRs with micro-loads of 0.1% or 0.2% of body mass attenuates physical fatigue indicated in attenuated RCoD performance while executing SSG.

Single and Combined Effects of Preferred Music and Endpoint Knowledge on Jump Performance in Basketball Players.

Both music and endpoint knowledge of exercise have been shown to independently influence exercise performance. However, whether these factors work as synergists or counteract one another during exercise is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the single and combined effect of listening to preferred music and types of endpoint knowledge on repeated countermovement jump (CMJ) test performance. Twenty-four (n = 24) current or previously competitive basketball players underwent CMJ testing under the following endpoint knowledge conditions: (1) unknown/no knowledge, (2) knowledge of the number of jumps, and (3) knowledge of exercise duration. For each of these, participants listened to either their preferred music or no music during the duration of testing. For the exercise portion, participants completed repeated CMJs where participants were encouraged to jump as high as possible with jump height, contact time, and flight time as outcomes. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and feeling scale were measured before and after exercise. The results showed that, regardless of knowledge type, preferred music resulted in a significant decrease in both contact time and flight time (F ≥ 10.4, p ≤ 0.004, and ηp2 ≥ 0.35), and a significant improvement of jump height (F = 11.36, p = 0.001, and ηp2 = 0.09) and feeling scale ratings (F = 36.9, p < 0.001, and ηp2 = 0.66) compared to no-music condition, while RPE was not significantly affected. Regardless of the presence of music, knowledge of the number of jumps and duration resulted in lower contact time (p < 0.001, 0.9 < d < 1.56) versus unknown condition during CMJs. Moreover, a significant decrease in RPE values was found during prior endpoint knowledge of number (p = 0.005; d = 0.72) and duration (p = 0.045; d = 0.63) compared to unknown condition. However, feeling scale ratings were not significantly affected. Moreover, no interactions with significance findings were found for any parameters. Overall, data suggest that listening to music and endpoint knowledge alter exercise responses in basketball players, but they do not interact with one another.

The Effects of Exercise Training on Plasma Volume Variations: A Systematic Review.

The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the evidence on the acute and long-term effects of exercise training on PV, in both trained and untrained individuals and to examine associations between changes in %PVV and change in physical/physiological performance. Despite the status of participants and the exercise duration or intensity, all the acute studies reported a significant decrease of PV (effect size: 0.85

Association between ACTN3 R577X genotype and risk of non-contact injury in trained athletes: A systematic review.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to review, systematically, evidence concerning the link between the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and the rates and severity of non-contact injuries and exercise-induced muscle damage in athletes and individuals enrolled in exercise training programs. METHODS: A computerized literature search was performed in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus, from inception until November 2020. All included studies compared the epidemiological characteristics of non-contact injury between the different genotypes of the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism. RESULTS: Our search identified 492 records. After the screening of titles, abstracts, and full texts, 13 studies examining the association between the ACTN3 genotypes and the rate and severity of non-contact injury were included in the analysis. These studies were performed in 6 different countries (Spain, Japan, Brazil, China, the Republic of Korea, and Italy) and involved a total participant pool of 1093 participants. Of the studies, 2 studies involved only women, 5 studies involved only men, and 6 studies involved both men and women. All the studies included were classified as high-quality studies (≥6 points in the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale score). Overall, evidence suggests there is an association between the ACTN3 R577X genotype and non-contact injury in 12 investigations. Six studies observed a significant association between ACTN3 R577X polymorphism and exercise induced muscle damage: 2 with non-contact ankle injury, 3 with non-contact muscle injury, and 1 with overall non-contact injury. CONCLUSION: The present findings support the premise that possessing the ACTN3 XX genotype may predispose athletes to a higher probability of some non-contact injuries, such as muscle injury, ankle sprains, and higher levels of exercise-induced muscle damage.

Effects of different training intensities in high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on maximal aerobic velocity, hematological and muscle-damage markers in healthy young adults.

This study aimed to examine the effects of two high-intensity interval training programs (HIIT) on maximal aerobic velocity (MAV), hematological variations and muscle damage markers in young healthy adults. Twenty-nine male physical education students, aged 20.3 ± 3.3 years, volunteered to participate in this study, and were randomly assigned to a control group (CG, n = 9) or two intervention groups (group 1 or 2). Intervention group 1 (n = 10) exercised at 100% of their MAV (EG100) while group 2 (n = 10) exercised at 110% MAV (EG110). Before and after the eight week training program, blood samples were drawn at rest, before, and after an intermittent exercise. Aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), C reactive protein (CRP), creatine kinase (CK) concentrations and hematological parameters (white blood cells [WBC], monocytes [MO], lymphocytes [LY], neutrophil [NE]) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were measured. Post-hoc tests showed that MAV was significantly higher in EG110 compared to EG100 after HIIT (p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.05), whilst ALAT, ASAT, and CPR were significantly lower (p < 0.01; 0.02 < ηp2 < 0.11) in EG110 compared to EG100. Moreover, post-hoc tests indicated that LY decreased significantly (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.21) only for EG110. Furthermore, there were significant positive correlations for both EG100 and EG110 between MAV and ALAT (r = 0.66, p = 0.044 and r = 0.64, p = 0.041 respectively), CK (r = 0.67, p = 0.031 and r = 0.86, p = 0.030, respectively), LDH (r = 0.74, p = 0.014, and r = 0.071, p = 0.021, respectively). In addition, there was a significant positive correlation for both, EG100 and EG110 between MAV and LY (r = 0.79, p < 0.01; r = 0.72, p < 0.05, respectively). Concerning the relationship between MAV and NE, there was a significant positive correlation (r = 0.66; p < 0.05) only for EG110. Findings from this study revealed that HIIT at 110% MAV was more efficient to improve MAV and reduce muscle damage. In addition, we observed significant associations between performance improvements (MAV) and markers of muscle damage.

Effects of Exercise Training on Anabolic and Catabolic Hormones with Advanced Age: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Ageing is accompanied by decreases in physical capacity and physiological regulatory mechanisms including altered hormonal regulation compared with age-matched sedentary people. The potential benefits of exercise in restoring such altered hormone production and secretion compared to age-matched physically inactive individuals who are ageing remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this systematic review was to summarise the findings of exercise training in modulating levels of ostensibly anabolic and catabolic hormones in adults aged > 40 years. METHODS: We searched the following electronic databases (to July 2021) without a period limit: Cochrane Library, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science. Additionally, a manual search for published studies in Google Scholar was conducted for analysis of the 'grey literature' (information produced outside of traditional commercial or academic publishing and distribution channels). The initial search used the terms 'ageing' OR 'advanced age' OR 'old people' OR 'older' OR elderly' AND 'anabolic hormones' OR 'catabolic hormones' OR 'steroid hormones' OR 'sex hormones' OR 'testosterone' OR 'cortisol' OR 'insulin' OR 'insulin-like growth factor-1' OR 'IGF-1' OR 'sex hormone-binding globulin' OR 'SHBG' OR 'growth hormone' OR 'hGH' OR 'dehydroepiandrosterone' OR 'DHEA' OR 'dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S)' AND 'exercise training' OR 'endurance training' OR 'resistance training' OR ' strength training' OR 'weight-lifting' OR 'high-intensity interval training' OR 'high-intensity interval exercise' OR 'high-intensity intermittent training' OR 'high-intensity intermittent exercise' OR 'interval aerobic training' OR 'interval aerobic exercise' OR 'intermittent aerobic training' OR 'intermittent aerobic exercise' OR 'high-intensity training' OR 'high-intensity exercise' OR 'sprint interval training' OR 'sprint interval exercise' OR 'combined exercise training' OR 'anaerobic training'. Only eligible full texts in English or French were considered for analysis. RESULTS: Our search identified 484 records, which led to 33 studies for inclusion in the analysis. Different exercise training programs were used with nine studies using endurance training programs, ten studies examining the effects of high-intensity interval training, and 14 studies investigating the effects of resistance training. Most training programs lasted ≥ 2 weeks. Studies, regardless of the design, duration or intensity of exercise training, reported increases in testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), human growth hormone (hGH) or dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (effect size: 0.19 < d < 3.37, small to very large) in both older males and females. However, there was no consensus on the effects of exercise on changes in cortisol and insulin in older adults. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, findings from this systematic review suggest that exercise training increases basal levels of testosterone, IGF-1, SHBG, hGH and DHEA in both male and females over 40 years of age. The increases in blood levels of these hormones were independent of the mode, duration and intensity of the training programs. However, the effects of long-term exercise training on cortisol and insulin levels in elderly people are less clear.

Hematology, Hormones, Inflammation, and Muscle Damage in Elite and Professional Soccer Players: A Systematic Review with Implications for Exercise.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the long-term effects of soccer training on hematological, hormonal, inflammatory, and muscle damage markers and physical performance may help to better design strength and conditioning programs for performance development and injury prevention for the individual player and the team. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this systematic review was to summarize and discuss evidence on the long-term effects of soccer training on selected hematological, hormonal, inflammatory, and muscle damage markers and physical performance in elite and professional soccer players. A second goal was to investigate associations between selected physiological markers and measures of performance. METHODS: Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, a systematic literature search was conducted in four electronic databases (PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus) from inception until August 2020 to identify articles related to soccer training effects. To be included in this systematic review, studies had to examine male elite (national level) and/or professional (international level) soccer players aged > 17 years and a soccer training period > 4 weeks, and report outcomes related to hematological, hormonal, inflammatory, muscle damage, and performance markers. RESULTS: The search syntax initially identified 2420 records. After screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, 20 eligible studies were included in this systematic review, with training durations lasting between 4 and 18 weeks in 15 studies, around 6 months in four studies, and around 1 year in one study. Effects of long-term soccer training revealed parameter-specific increases or decreases in hematological, hormonal, inflammatory, and muscle damage markers and physical performance. Two studies showed a moderate increase in hematological markers such as hemoglobin (effect size [ES] = 0.67-0.93). Parameter-specific changes were noted for hormonal markers in the form of increases for total testosterone (ES = 0.20-0.67) and free testosterone (FT) (ES = 0.20-0.65) and decreases for cortisol (ES = - 0.28 to - 1.31). Finally, moderate to very large increases were found for muscle damage markers such as creatine kinase (ES = 0.94-6.80) and physical performance such as countermovement jump (CMJ) height (ES = 0.50-1.11) and squat jump (SJ) height (ES = 0.65-1.28). After long-term periods of soccer training, significant positive correlations were found between percentage change (Δ%) in FT and Δ% in CMJ height (r = 0.94; p = 0.04) and between Δ% in total testosterone/cortisol (TT/C) ratio and Δ% in SJ (r = 0.89; p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that long-term soccer training induces increases/decreases in hematological, hormonal, inflammatory, and muscle damage markers and physical performance in male elite and professional soccer players. These fluctuations can be explained by different contextual factors (e.g., training load, duration of training, psychological factors, mood state). Interestingly, the observed changes in hormonal parameters (FT and TT/C) were related to vertical jump performance changes (e.g., CMJ and SJ). Anabolic hormones and TT/C can possibly be used as a tool to identify physical performance alteration after long-term soccer training.

Sex-specific effects of small-sided games in basketball on psychometric and physiological markers during Ramadan intermittent fasting: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: We assessed the effects of gender, in association with a four-week small-sided games (SSGs) training program, during Ramadan intermitting fasting (RIF) on changes in psychometric and physiological markers in professional male and female basketball players. METHODS: Twenty-four professional basketball players from the first Tunisian (Tunisia) division participated in this study. The players were dichotomized by sex (males [GM = 12]; females [GF = 12]). Both groups completed a 4 weeks SSGs training program with 3 sessions per week. Psychometric (e.g., quality of sleep, fatigue, stress, and delayed onset of muscle soreness [DOMS]) and physiological parameters (e.g., heart rate frequency, blood lactate) were measured during the first week (baseline) and at the end of RIF (post-test). RESULTS: Post hoc tests showed a significant increase in stress levels in both groups (GM [- 81.11%; p < 0.001, d = 0.33, small]; GF [- 36,53%; p = 0.001, d = 0.25, small]). Concerning physiological parameters, ANCOVA revealed significantly lower heart rates in favor of GM at post-test (1.70%, d = 0.38, small, p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that SSGs training at the end of the RIF negatively impacted psychometric parameters of male and female basketball players. It can be concluded that there are sex-mediated effects of training during RIF in basketball players, and this should be considered by researchers and practitioners when programing training during RIF.

Physical activity and adipokine levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes: A literature review and practical applications.

We review the effects of acute and long-term physical activity on adipokine levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Three electronic databases were searched. Studies made in animal models were excluded, while studies based on participants with and without T2D, and also studies with type 1 diabetes were included. Of the 2,450 citations, 63 trials, including randomised control trials, cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, met our inclusion criteria. Seventy and five percent of studies reported the effects of physical activity on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), interleukin 6 (IL-6), adiponectin, visfatin, omentin-1, and leptin levels. There are no robust results due to variations in exercise modality, intensity, duration, and also differences in cohort characteristics in the literature. Only four studies described the effects of an acute session of physical activity on adipokine levels. Overall, physical activity improves diabetes status by regulating adipokine levels. However, long-term aerobic + resistance training combined with dietary modifications is likely to be a more effective strategy for improving adipokines profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Internal and External Training Load in Under-19 versus Professional Soccer Players during the In-Season Period.

This study aimed to compare the training load of a professional under-19 soccer team (U-19) to that of an elite adult team (EAT), from the same club, during the in-season period. Thirty-nine healthy soccer players were involved (EAT [n = 20]; U-19 [n = 19]) in the study which spanned four weeks. Training load (TL) was monitored as external TL, using a global positioning system (GPS), and internal TL, using a rating of perceived exertion (RPE). TL data were recorded after each training session. During soccer matches, players' RPEs were recorded. The internal TL was quantified daily by means of the session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) using Borg's 0-10 scale. For GPS data, the selected running speed intensities (over 0.5 s time intervals) were 12-15.9 km/h; 16-19.9 km/h; 20-24.9 km/h; >25 km/h (sprint). Distances covered between 16 and 19.9 km/h, > 20 km/h and >25 km/h were significantly higher in U-19 compared to EAT over the course of the study (p = 0.023, d = 0.243, small; p = 0.016, d = 0.298, small; and p = 0.001, d = 0.564, small, respectively). EAT players performed significantly fewer sprints per week compared to U-19 players (p = 0.002, d = 0.526, small). RPE was significantly higher in U-19 compared to EAT (p = 0.001, d = 0.188, trivial). The external and internal measures of TL were significantly higher in the U-19 group compared to the EAT soccer players. In conclusion, the results obtained show that the training load is greater in U19 compared to EAT.

400 meters freestyle pacing strategy and race pace training in age-group swimmers.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to characterize the 400 m freestyle pacing strategy, the effect of post-race feedback, and individualised race-pace training. METHODS: Twenty male swimmers (13.4 ± 1.0 years) were randomly assigned into two groups. The experimental group used training monitoring based on intensities around 400 m pace (92 and 97% of 400 m speed), while, for the control group different heart rate zones (EN2 and EN2+) were used as an intensity criterion. The training volume was the same for both groups. A maximal 400 m freestyle simulated competition was performed before and after the 3 weeks period to determine intensities and to assess changes in performance. The rate of perceived exertion and heart rate values were also evaluated. RESULTS: A fast start in the first 50-100 m, then a constant speed in the middle of the race and an end-spurt during the last 50-100 m was the pacing pattern adopted by the majority of the swimmers. Significant main effects of time were observed for 400 m time ( p = 0.001; ES 3.39; very large). Results revealed significant pre-to-post improvements from 328 ± 26.3 s to 317 ± 19.4 s in the experimental group and from 329 ± 25.2 s to 321 ± 21.1 s in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: All the swimmers adopted almost the same parabolic pacing strategy before and after the training program with some differences in seconds that have made the strategy of the experimental group better balanced during the post-training test. Both training methods induced significant improvements in 400 m performance, to a greater extent for the training using intensities near 400 m race pace.

Effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on inflammatory and biochemical biomarkers in males with obesity.

BACKGROUND: To determine the effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) on inflammatory (C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)) and biochemical markers of liver-renal function (aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), urea and creatinine) in males with obesity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-eight males with obesity were randomly allocated to an experimental group (EG, n = 14) or a control group (CG, n = 14). The EG group completed their fasting rituals for the entire month of Ramadan (30 days) whereas the CG group continued with their normal daily habits. Blood samples were collected 24 h before the start of Ramadan (T0), on the 15th day of Ramadan (T1), the day after the end of Ramadan (T2), and 21 days after the end of Ramadan (T3). Resting plasma volume variation between pre and post-RIF (ΔPV) was calculated. RESULTS: Decreases were noted for interleukin-6 (p = 0.02, d = 1.4) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (p = 0.01, d = 0.7), with no changes for C-reactive protein (p = 0.3; d = 0.1) in the EG compared to CG group. There were no changes (P > 0.05) in ΔPV recorded after RIF for either EG (-0.035 ± 0.02%) and CG (0.055 ± 0.06%). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that RIF improves systemic inflammation biomarkers in males with obesity. Moreover, RIF did not negatively affect biomarkers of liver and renal function.

Heart Rate Variability is Correlated with Perceived Physical Fitness in Elite Soccer Players.

Heart Rate Variability (HRV) has been typically used to monitor athletes' physical fitness readiness. The supine position maximizes parasympathetic tone, which is important for monitoring in continuous aerobic sports, however, this is not the case of team sports that rely on anaerobic intermittent bouts, thus increasing sympathetic activation and vagal withdrawal. We hypothesized that HRV during sympathetic activation and vagal withdrawal would be a useful marker to evaluate perceived physical fitness in team sports. HRV was measured in both supine and standing positions during the mornings of 4 match days in 14 professional players. The supine Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences (RMSSD), as well as spectral analysis indices were recorded. Perceived physical fitness was assessed after each match by means of a visual analogue scale (VAS). Supine RMSSD was moderately correlated with perceived physical fitness (rho = 0.416), however, larger correlations were observed for supine and standing spectral indices (rho > 0.5). Correlation between RMSSD and Total Power was very large, thus questioning the usual interpretation of RMSSD (rho > 0.7). Standing Spectral HRV analyses may be a useful method for evaluating perceived physical fitness in the context of team sports. RMSSD may reflect the overall variability of HR and not only the parasympathetic influence, as observed in the current study.

Plasma retinol-binding protein-4 and tumor necrosis factor-α are reduced in postmenopausal women after combination of different intensities of circuit resistance training and Zataria supplementation.

PURPOSE: Zataria is a plant with anti-inflammatory properties, which has been used for the treatment of many diseases. This study investigated the effect of different intensities of circuit resistance training and Zataria supplementation on plasma retinol-binding protein-4 (RBP-4) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in postmenopausal women. METHODS: Seventy-two postmenopausal women were divided on randomized order into six groups: Control (McGinley and Bishop in J Appl Physiol 121(6):1290-1305, 2016), Training 35% (T35%), Training 55% (T55%), Zataria (Özgünen et al. in Scand J Med Sci Sports 20:140-147, 2010), Zataria/Training 35% (ZT35%), and Zataria/Training 55% (ZT55%). Resist-ance training program included 12 exercise stations (each: 30 s, intensity: 35% and 55% of 1-RM) for 8 weeks (3 sessions/week). Daily (500 mg) Zataria was used after breakfast by participants in ZG, ZT35%, and ZT55% groups. Blood samples were taken 48 h before and after the first and last sessions of training. RESULTS: After the training period the percentage of body fat decreased significantly (P < 0.001) in all trained groups, whereas muscle mass increased significantly (P < 0.01) only in T55% and ZT55% groups. A significant decrease was observed for RBP-4 values (P < 0.05) after training in all groups except for ZG and CG. Also, RBP-4 was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in all groups as compared to CG at the post-test except for ZG. Moreover, significantly lower values (P < 0.05) were found in T55%, ZT35%, and ZT55% as compared to ZG in post-intervention. TNF-α values decreased significantly (P < 0.05) at the post-test as compared to pre-intervention in ZT35% and ZT55%. Also, TNF-α was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in ZT55% compared to CG and T35% in post-test. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate clearly that in postmenopausal women, circuit resistance training both at low and moderate intensities cause a greater reduction in RBP-4 and TNF-α when Zataria is supplemented in the diet during training.

Supplementation of Adiantum capillus-veneris Modulates Alveolar Apoptosis under Hypoxia Condition in Wistar Rats Exposed to Exercise.

Background and Objectives: Several studies have reported that some conditions such as exercise and hypoxia induce DNA damage and dysfunction and apoptosis. Some plant foods contain numerous bioactive compounds and anti-inflammatory properties that can help fight DNA damage. Therefore, the current study evaluated the effect of supplementation of Adiantum capillus-veneris (ACV) extract on Bax/B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) ratio apoptotic index and remodeling of pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells in lung tissue of healthy Wistar rats during stressful conditions (hypoxia). Materials and Methods: Twenty-seven Wistar male rats (four-week old, 72 ± 9 g) were randomly assigned into three groups: normoxic, sedentary, and not-supplemented (NG, n = 9); exercise and hypoxia and not-supplemented (HE, n = 9); and exercise and hypoxia and supplemented group (HS, n = 9). The NG remained sedentary in the normoxia environment for nine weeks. The HE group participated in a high-intensity (IT) program for six weeks, then remained sedentary in the hypoxia environment for three weeks. The low-pressure chamber simulated a ~2800 M altitude 24 h/d. HS participated in IT, then entered and remained sedentary in the hypoxia environment for three weeks, and they consumed 500 mg per kg of body weight ACV extract. Results: The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio of the HE group increased significantly (+50.27%, p ≤ 0.05), the average number of type I pneumocytes was reduced significantly (-18.85%, p ≤ 0.05), and the average number of type II pneumocytes was increased significantly (+14.69%, p ≤ 0.05). Also, after three weeks of consuming the ACV extract, the HS group in comparison with the HE group had their Bax/Bcl-2 ratio reduced significantly (-24.27%, p ≤ 0.05), the average number of type I pneumocytes increased significantly (+10.15%, p ≤ 0.05), and the average number of type II pneumocytes reduced significantly (-7.18%, p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: The findings show that after three weeks of hypoxia following six weeks of high-intensity interval training in Wistar rats, the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the number of type II pneumocytes were increased and the number of type I pneumocytes was reduced significantly. These results strongly suggest that an apoptosis state was induced in the lung parenchyma, and consuming ACV extract modulated this state.

Effects of polyphenol (carob) supplementation on body composition and aerobic capacity in taekwondo athletes.

Herbal products and supplements use by athletes has increased over the past decade. One such item being polyphenols. These are reported to reduce weight and modify body composition, which could aid athletes in many sports. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to determine the effect of 6 weeks supplementation with carob, a naturally occurring polyphenol, on body composition and aerobic capacity in youth taekwondo athletes. Twenty-three taekwondo athletes (21.9 ±â€¯1.2 years; 1.64 ±â€¯0.03 m; 67.4 ±â€¯17.3 kg;BMI: 22.8 ±â€¯5.5 kg/m2) participated in a short-term (6-week) double-blind randomized design parallel fully controlled training study (pre-to-post measurements): Supplemented group (SG), n = 11;placebo group (PG), n = 12. Body composition, aerobic capacity, heart rate and RPE were analyzed before and after 6 weeks of carob rich polyphenol ingestion. Significantly greater decreases in weight were observed for SG and PG (-2.82% and - 0.51%respectively) with differences between groups (p < 0.001). No significant differences were reported in percentage body fat and muscular volume between groups. Our results revealed an improvement of aerobic performance score and RPE with differences between groups. A cute polyphenol supplementation seemed to be effective in reducing body weight and improving aerobic performance in athletes.

Increase interval training intensity improves plasma volume variations and aerobic performances in response to intermittent exercise.

PURPOSE: We studied the effect of two interval training programs of varying intensities (100% vs. 110% of maximal aerobic velocity [MAV]) on hematocrit (Ht), hemoglobin (Hb), and plasma volume variations (PVV) in young men. METHODS: Thirty-nine male volunteered were assigned to two control groups (CG100, n = 9 and CG110, n = 10), and two training groups (one with 100% MAV [EG100, n = 10] and one with 110% MAV [EG110, n = 10]). All participants performed a maximal graded exercise test and an intermittent exercise (IE) protocol. Blood was collected at rest, at the end of the IE and after 15 min of recovery, before and after 8-weeks-training. Interval training (IT) sessions consist of 30s IE run at 100% or 110% MAV with 30s recovery at 50% MAV. RESULTS: After training, time to exhaustion (TTE) was improved in EG110 (+613.7) and EG100 (+397.5). This improvement was greater in EG110 than EG100 (p < 0.005). After training, Hb deceased in EG100 and EG110 at rest (p < 0.01), at the end of IE (p = 0.000) and after 15 min of recovery (p = 0.01). This decrease was more slightly more substantial at rest in EG100 (-0.6%) than EG110 (-0.3%). After training, Ht decreased in EG100 and EG110 at rest (p = 0.001), at the end of IE (p = 0.000) and at 15 min of recovery (p = 0.01). This decrease was more important in EG110 than EG100 at rest (-2.7%), at the end of IE (-2.1%) and after 15 min recovery. After training, PVVrest and PVVend increased in EG100 (+2.2%) and EG110 (+3.2%). No significant difference between EG100 and EG110 was observed. CONCLUSION: Increasing IT intensity by 10% MAV increases PVVrest and PVVend. Despite the fact that EG100 and EG110 had the same PVVend after training, greater performances were recorded in EG110.

Effect of age and combined sprint and strength training on plasma catecholamine responses to a Wingate-test.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this research is to study the effects of aging and combined training (sprint and strength) on catecholamine responses [adrenaline (A) and noradrenaline (NA)]. METHODS: Thirty-two male subjects voluntarily participated in this study. They were randomly divided into four groups: A young trained group (age 21.4 ± 1.2 years, YT, n = 8), a young control group (age 21.9 ± 1.9 years, YC, n = 8), a middle-aged trained group (age 40.8 ± 2.8 years, AT, n = 8) and a middle-aged control group (age 40.4 ± 2.0 years, AC, n = 8). YT and AT participated in a high intensity sprint and strength training program (HISST) for 13 weeks. All the participants realized the Wingate-test before (P1) and after (P2) HISST. Plasma A and NA concentrations were determined at rest (A 0, NA0) and at the end of exercise (A max, NAmax). RESULTS: At P1, a significant difference (p < 0.05) in terms of age was observed for NA0 and A 0 between YT and AT and between control groups YC and AC. This age effect disappeared after training when compared YT and AT. After HISST, A max increased significantly (p < 0.05) in YT and AT (from 3.08 ± 0.17 to 3.23 ± 0.34 nmol l(-1) in YT and from 3.23 ± 0.52 to 4.59 ± 0.10 nmol l(-1) in AT). However, NAmax increased significantly (p < 0.05) in AT only (from 3.34 ± 0.31 to 3.75 ± 0.60 nmol l(-1)). A max was highly increased in AT compared to YT (4.59 ± 0.10 vs. 3.23 ± 0.34 nmol l(-1)), respectively. CONCLUSION: The combined training (sprint and strength) appeared to reduce the age effect of the catecholamine response both at rest and in response to exercise.